Variation in traits among organs within a single individual, in modular organisms such as plants, is now known to be; different among individuals, genetically and epigenetically based, and affect the individual fitness. Individuals are not longer the frontier to ecological and evolutionary meaningful diversity.

Ecologically relevant epigenetic variation challenges our current understanding of evolutionary processes. A host of environmental factors can modify phenotypes via epigenetic modifications that are transmissible across generations and can be adaptive. Epigenetically originated variation can influence the course of evolution and provide a shortcut to evolutionary change.

Human activity is decreasing biodiversity and ecosystem function at an unprecedented rate. Biodiversity loss lessens the ability of forests to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in living biomass and soil. Above ground, not only plants, but also vertebrates play an important role in the carbon cycle.